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Specialisation can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge. By splitting up the subject matter into smaller units, one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for further research. But specialisation was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process of communication. Another was the growing professionalisation of scientific activity.
No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word 'amateur' does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialisation in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper. Thus, in the nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right; but, in the twentieth century, local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider geological picture. Amateurs, on the other hand, have continued to pursue local studies in the old way. The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century. As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professiona
l or amateur readership. A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.
Although the process of professionalisation and specialisation was already well under way in British geology during the nineteenth century, its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century. In science generally, however, the nineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structure of science.
1. The growth of specialisation in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as ________.
[A] sociology and chemistry [B] physics and psychology
[C] sociology and psychology [D] physics and chemistry
2. We can infer from the passage that ________.
[A] there is little distinction between specialisation and professionalisation
[B] amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science
[C] professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community
[D] amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones
3. The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate ________.
[A] the process of specialisation and professionalisation
[B] the hardship of amateurs in scientific study
[C] the change of policies in scientific publications
[D] the discrimination of professionals against amateurs
4. The direct reason for specialisation is ________.
[A] the development in communication [B] the growth of professionalisation
[C] the expansion of scientific knowledge [D] the splitting up of academic societies
>>>>>>答案解析<<<<<<
重點(diǎn)詞匯：
1.specialisation(專業(yè)化)即special+is(e)+ation，special(特別的;額外的)，-ise動(dòng)詞后綴(specialise即v.專業(yè)化)，-ation名詞后綴;specialist(專家;專科醫(yī)生)←special+ist后綴表“人”。Love is a special affection for a man or a woman, which is stronger than that for any other person.愛情是對(duì)一個(gè)男人或女人的特殊的好感，它比對(duì)其他任何人的好感都強(qiáng)烈。
2.response (回復(fù);響應(yīng))是respond的名詞形式。The sartorial artist no less than the sculptor, the painter and the musician dreams of creations that will awaken a response in the soul of the world.好裁縫跟雕塑家、畫家和音樂家一樣，夢(mèng)想著能在世人靈魂中引起反響的作品。
3.accumulation(積累，堆積)即accumulate+ation，accumulate(v.積累，堆積)，-ation名詞后綴。University are full of knowledge; the freshmen bring a little in and the seniors take none away, and knowledge accumulates.大學(xué)里充滿了知識(shí)，新生帶進(jìn)來(lái)一些，高年級(jí)學(xué)生則一點(diǎn)也不帶走，于是知識(shí)就積累了下來(lái)。Books are the ever-burning lamps of accumulated wisdom.書籍是積累智慧的明燈。
4.professionalisation(職業(yè)化)即professional+is(e)+ation，professional(職業(yè)的;職業(yè)人員)，-ise動(dòng)詞后綴(professionalise即v.職業(yè)化)，-ation名詞后綴。In love woman are professionals, men are amateurs.在戀愛中女子是專業(yè)者，男子是業(yè)余者。
5.clear-cut 明確的，清晰的。
6.amateur(業(yè)余的;業(yè)余愛好者)可記諧音“愛慕它”，“業(yè)余愛好者”選擇某專業(yè)必定是“愛慕它”。Every artist was once an amateur.所有的藝術(shù)家都曾經(jīng)是業(yè)余愛好者。amateur — a young man who, when flattering women, is afraid of overdoing it 業(yè)余選手——奉承女人時(shí)怕做過頭的年輕人。
7.distinction (差別，區(qū)分)即distinct+ion，distinct(清楚的，明顯的)，-ion名詞后綴。同根詞：extinct滅絕(因?yàn)橛衳而省略s);instinct本能。Success seems to be that which forms the distinction between confidence and conceit.成功似乎是形成自信與自負(fù)區(qū)別的東西。
8.connotation (涵義)即con+not(e)+ation，con-前綴“一起”，note記錄，-ation名詞后綴，“所有東西都被一起記錄在其中”→涵義。
9.integrate(使成為一體)←integr完整+ate
10.Participation(參加;分享)即Parti+cip+ation，Parti(=Part)，cip(=cap)抓(參captive，2003年Text 3)，-ation名詞后綴，“抓取其中一部分”→分享;動(dòng)詞為Participate←Parti+cip+ate。We Participate in a tragedy; at a comedy we only look.悲劇我們參加，喜劇我們僅僅觀看。
11.in terms of 依據(jù);用……措辭。
12.reveal?(v.展現(xiàn);揭示;泄露)即re+veal，re-前綴(=away)，veal(=veil)面紗，“揭開面紗”→展示。A person reveals his character by nothing so clearly as the joke he resents.沒有什么比一個(gè)人所反感的笑話更能顯露他的為人。If you reveal your secrets to the wind, you should not blame the wind for revealing them to the trees.你如果把秘密泄露給風(fēng)，就不應(yīng)責(zé)怪風(fēng)把秘密泄露給樹。
13.emphasis(強(qiáng)調(diào)，重點(diǎn))可看作em+phasis，em-前綴“強(qiáng)調(diào)”，phasis看作是phase(階段)的復(fù)述形式，于是“在各階段里最值得強(qiáng)調(diào)的”→強(qiáng)調(diào)。I sometime wish that people would put a little more emphasis upon the observance of the law than they do upon its enforcement.有時(shí)候我但愿人們多把重點(diǎn)放在遵守法律上，而非強(qiáng)調(diào)其實(shí)施。
14.primacy (首要，首位)即prim(e)+acy，prime首要的，-acy名詞后綴，primacy與privacy(隱私)一字母之差，“隱私”是最“首要”的。
15.definition(定義)即defin(e)+ition，define(下定義;限定)-ition名詞后綴。It is almost a definition of a gentleman to say that he is one who never inflicts pain.說一個(gè)人從不給人造成痛苦，這幾乎是下了一個(gè)關(guān)于君子的定義。
16.represent(v.描述;代表)←re+present。Books only Partially represent their authors.圖書只是部分地體現(xiàn)了作者。
17.reflect (v.反射;反映;思考)←re回+flect彎曲。There are two ways of spreading light: To be the candle, or the mirror that reflects it.散布光的方法有兩種：當(dāng)蠟燭或者當(dāng)反射燭光的鏡子。Who reflects too much will accomplish little.思慮過多者一事難成。
18.referee(仲裁者v.仲裁)←refer+ee。
19.separate(分離的v.分離)←se+par+ate，se-前綴“分離”，par看作Part“分離”，-ate后綴。同前綴詞：select(v.選擇a.精選的)←se+lect選。You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom.你無(wú)法將安寧與自由分開，因?yàn)榈貌坏阶杂烧l(shuí)都不會(huì)安寧。
20.delay (v.n.耽擱，延遲)看作de+lay，de-向下，lay放，把事情暫時(shí)“放下”→耽擱。Never delay that should be done today until tomorrow.不要把今天應(yīng)做的事推遲到明天。
21.reckon (v.認(rèn)為;估算)看作re+ckon，re-前綴“反復(fù)”，ckon諧音“啃”，題目太難了，需要“re啃”才能“估算”出答案。I reckon being ill as one of the great pleasures of life, provided one is not too ill and is not obliged to work till one is better.我把生病當(dāng)作人生一大樂趣，只要病得不太嚴(yán)重，并且在好轉(zhuǎn)之前不被要求工作。To sensible men, every day is a day of reckoning.對(duì)明智的人來(lái)說，每一天的時(shí)間都要精打細(xì)算。
22.crucial(極重要的，決定性的)即cruc+ial，cruc詞根(=cross)，-ail形容詞后綴，“處于十字路口的”→關(guān)鍵的。
23.psychology(心理學(xué))←psycho+logy，psycho詞根“心理”，-logy后綴“……學(xué)”。The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we know best.心理學(xué)的用途是告訴我們對(duì)最熟悉事物的完全不同的觀念。
24.in one's own right 憑自身?xiàng)l件;
25.under way 在進(jìn)行中。
難句解析：
�、� No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word "amateur" does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific commUnity and, in Particular, may not fully share its values.
先看前面的句子的主干是No... distinction can be drawn between...，冒號(hào)后面的內(nèi)容是進(jìn)一步說明前面的觀點(diǎn)。在第二個(gè)句子中，一上來(lái)就有一個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)折詞nevertheless，表示語(yǔ)意的轉(zhuǎn)折，其主句是the word "amateur" does carry a connotation，后面有一個(gè)同位語(yǔ)從句，里面有兩個(gè)并列謂語(yǔ)。
注意nevertheless表示轉(zhuǎn)折，其后的信息與其前面的信息意思相反，前面講二者沒有很明顯的區(qū)別，后面便說業(yè)余和專業(yè)就是不一樣。其次要看清the word "amateur" DOES carry a connotation而非DOES NOT。
�、� The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
兩個(gè)分句有同一個(gè)主語(yǔ)，即the trend，兩個(gè)謂語(yǔ)為was obvious和can be illustrated。前一個(gè)分句中based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training修飾areas of science。
注意be illustrated的用法，這里是“舉例說明，例證說明”的意思;另外in terms of是“就某事來(lái)說，以某事為例”的意思。
③ A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper.
本句的主語(yǔ)是a comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half(中心詞為a comparison)，謂語(yǔ)是reveals，賓語(yǔ)主體結(jié)構(gòu)是not simply... but also...所連接的兩個(gè)并列賓語(yǔ)，注意賓語(yǔ)emphasis和definition前都有分詞來(lái)修飾。
an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research譯為“對(duì)科研的重要性的強(qiáng)調(diào)不斷攀升”，a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper譯為“一篇過得去的科研論文創(chuàng)作標(biāo)準(zhǔn)也有所變化”，其中what指代the elements that。
④ The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.
全句的主干結(jié)構(gòu)是The... result has been to do sth.。注意逗號(hào)后面只是一個(gè)名詞性的短語(yǔ)，其核心詞是a result，可以被看成是前面句子主語(yǔ)的同位語(yǔ)，在其內(nèi)部主要是一個(gè)長(zhǎng)的定語(yǔ)從句，而定語(yǔ)從句中又有兩個(gè)并列的狀語(yǔ)first by..., and then by...。
entrance入口，此處指發(fā)表文章，進(jìn)入專業(yè)圈子。reinforce增強(qiáng)，也就是使難度更高。本句的理解重點(diǎn)在于理順句子結(jié)構(gòu)，要看到在第一個(gè)逗號(hào)之后沒有動(dòng)詞了，可以一層一層地把這個(gè)名詞短語(yǔ)分解開。
�、� A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.
這是一個(gè)并列關(guān)系的并列句，兩個(gè)分句由whereas(而)連接，說明了兩種情況，前面是在說professional，而后面說amateurs。
coming together nationally within one or two specific societies理解為“組成一到兩個(gè)全國(guó)性的�？茖W(xué)術(shù)社團(tuán)”。
試題解析：
1. 【正確答案】 [D]
根據(jù)第二段第三、四句，19世紀(jì)開始的專門化要求更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間、更復(fù)雜的培訓(xùn)，日益增長(zhǎng)的專門化給參與科學(xué)活動(dòng)的業(yè)余愛好者帶來(lái)了更大的問題。在特別是以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)為基礎(chǔ)的那些科學(xué)領(lǐng)域里，這一傾向自然表現(xiàn)得最為明顯，英國(guó)地質(zhì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展充分地說明了這一點(diǎn)。
在這四個(gè)選擇項(xiàng)中，雖然沒有提到地質(zhì)學(xué)，但是，眾所周知，就19世紀(jì)而言，物理學(xué)和化學(xué)均是以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)作為基礎(chǔ)的科學(xué)，因此[D]是正確答案。
2. 【正確答案】[B]
意為：業(yè)余研究者可以在某些科學(xué)領(lǐng)域與專業(yè)研究者相匹敵。根據(jù)第三段，在20世紀(jì)，局部的研究(local studies)只有在能被納入并反映出更廣泛研究框架的時(shí)候，才為專業(yè)研究者所接受。這說明，某些方面的研究是為專業(yè)研究者所認(rèn)可的。第二段還提到，目前并存著分別以業(yè)余研究者和專業(yè)研究者為對(duì)象的兩種雜志，專業(yè)地質(zhì)學(xué)家組成了全國(guó)性的一兩個(gè)協(xié)會(huì)，而業(yè)余研究者則通常是或者參加本地的研究協(xié)會(huì)，或者也以不同的方式結(jié)成全國(guó)性的組織。這些都說明了業(yè)余研究的不可或缺性以及與職業(yè)研究并存狀況。
A意為：專門化和專業(yè)化過程幾乎沒有區(qū)別。根據(jù)本文，專門化過程(specialisation)和專業(yè)化過程(professionalisation)實(shí)質(zhì)上是同一個(gè)過程，即：研究領(lǐng)域的專門化帶來(lái)了研究人員的專業(yè)化，一個(gè)是針對(duì)研究對(duì)象而言，另一個(gè)是針對(duì)研究者而宮，二者同時(shí)發(fā)生，不可比較。C不對(duì)。根據(jù)第三段第四句，專業(yè)研究者對(duì)業(yè)余研究者甚至還有排擠的傾向。D不對(duì)。參閱本題對(duì)選擇項(xiàng)[B]的解釋。
3. 【正確答案】 [A]
參閱第二段第三、四句并第51題題解。請(qǐng)?zhí)貏e注意第四句中illustrate(舉例說明)。另外，第四段第一句也提到，雖然專業(yè)化和專門化過程早在19世紀(jì)已在英國(guó)的地質(zhì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域展開，但直到20世紀(jì)我們才看到其全面影響。這句話也是對(duì)上一段的總結(jié)。
B意為：業(yè)余研究者在科學(xué)研究中碰到的艱辛。例子中雖然提到了專業(yè)化結(jié)業(yè)余研究者帶來(lái)的不利影響.但就總體而言，這個(gè)例子說明的是專業(yè)化和專門化過程的形成及其影響。C意為：科技出版物出版方針的變化。第三段提到了科學(xué)雜志的問題(參閱第52題題解)，但這顯然不是例子旨在說明的問題。D意為：專業(yè)研究者對(duì)業(yè)余研究者的歧視。
4. 【正確答案】 [C]
全文第一句指出，專門化過程可以看做是對(duì)日益積累的科學(xué)知識(shí)的反應(yīng)。該句的含義是：科學(xué)知識(shí)的積累促進(jìn)了知識(shí)的進(jìn)一步分類和分化(或?qū)ｉT化)。
A不對(duì)。第一段第二、三句話的意思是，通過將研究課題分作更小單位，人們可以繼續(xù)處理信息(注意：這里所說的information指上一句中的scientific knowledge)，用之作為進(jìn)一步研究的基礎(chǔ)，但是，專門化只是影響交流過程的一系列科學(xué)發(fā)展的一部分。這里所說的communication指科學(xué)知識(shí)的交流。B不對(duì)。專業(yè)比是隨著知識(shí)的進(jìn)一步分類而產(chǎn)生的，不是其成因。參閱第2題對(duì)選擇項(xiàng)A的解釋。D意為：學(xué)術(shù)團(tuán)體的分裂。
全文翻譯：
專業(yè)化可被視為針對(duì)科學(xué)知識(shí)不斷膨脹這個(gè)問題所做出的反應(yīng)。通過將學(xué)科細(xì)化，個(gè)人能夠繼續(xù)處理這些不斷膨脹的信息并將它們作為深入研究的基礎(chǔ)。但是專業(yè)化僅是科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)一系列影響交流過程的有關(guān)現(xiàn)象之一。另一現(xiàn)象是科學(xué)活動(dòng)的日益職業(yè)化。
在科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)，專業(yè)與業(yè)余之間沒有絕對(duì)的區(qū)分：任何規(guī)律都有其例外。但是“業(yè)余”這個(gè)詞的確具有特殊的含義，那就是所指的那個(gè)人沒有完全融入某個(gè)科學(xué)家群體，具體地說，他可能并不完全認(rèn)同這個(gè)群體的價(jià)值觀。19世紀(jì)的專業(yè)化的發(fā)展，以及隨之而來(lái)的對(duì)訓(xùn)練的長(zhǎng)期性和復(fù)雜性的要求，對(duì)業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入科學(xué)界造成了更大的困難。特別是在以數(shù)學(xué)和實(shí)驗(yàn)室訓(xùn)練為基礎(chǔ)的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域，這種傾向自然尤為明顯，這可以通過英國(guó)的地質(zhì)學(xué)發(fā)展過程得到證實(shí)。
對(duì)過去一個(gè)半世紀(jì)的英國(guó)地質(zhì)出版物進(jìn)行比較，我們不但發(fā)現(xiàn)人們對(duì)研究的重視程度在不斷增加，而且人們對(duì)可以接受的論文的定義也在不斷變化。因此，在19世紀(jì)，局部的地質(zhì)研究本身就可形成一種有價(jià)值的研究;而到了20世紀(jì)，如果局部的研究能夠被專業(yè)人員接受，那么它越來(lái)越傾向于必須體現(xiàn)或思考更廣闊的地質(zhì)面貌。另一方面業(yè)余人員繼續(xù)以舊的方式從事局部的研究。其整體的結(jié)果是使業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入專業(yè)性地質(zhì)學(xué)雜志更加困難，而審稿制度的全面引進(jìn)使這個(gè)結(jié)果得到加強(qiáng)，這一制度開始是在19世紀(jì)的全國(guó)性雜志進(jìn)行，進(jìn)入20世紀(jì)后也在一些地方性地質(zhì)雜志實(shí)行。這樣發(fā)展的必然結(jié)果是出現(xiàn)了針對(duì)專業(yè)讀者和業(yè)余讀者的不同雜志。類似的分化過程也導(dǎo)致專業(yè)地質(zhì)學(xué)家聚集起來(lái)，形成一兩個(gè)全國(guó)性的團(tuán)體，而業(yè)余地質(zhì)學(xué)家則要么留在地方性團(tuán)體中，要么以不同方式組成全國(guó)性的團(tuán)體。
雖然職業(yè)化和專業(yè)化過程在19世紀(jì)的英國(guó)地質(zhì)學(xué)界中已經(jīng)得到迅速發(fā)展，但是它的效果直到20世紀(jì)才充分顯示出來(lái)。然而，從科學(xué)這個(gè)整體來(lái)看，19世紀(jì)必須被視為科學(xué)結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)生變化的關(guān)鍵時(shí)期。
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