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英語國家概況名詞解釋
1. William the Conqueror 威廉征服: William was Duke of Normandy. He landed his army in Oct.1066 and defeated king Harold. Then he was crowned king of England on Christmas Day the same year. He established a strong Norman government and the feudal system in England.建立了封建制度
2. Doomsday Book----It is a book compiled by a group of clerks under the sponsorship of King William the First in 1086. The book was in fact a property record. It was the result of a general survey of England. It recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and ownership of the land. It was one of the important measures adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it is kept in the Public Records Office in London. 為了可靠地記錄所有的土地、佃戶和他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)并查明他們能交多少稅，威廉派官員編了一本財(cái)產(chǎn)清冊，稱為《末日審判書》。因?yàn)閷τ藖碚f，這本 土地清冊無疑就是最后審判日那天眾王之王所用的《末日書》。此冊完成于1086 年，它記錄了1085 年作的英國全國總調(diào)查的結(jié)果。此冊陳述了土地的范圍、價(jià)值、人口、耕種情況和所有權(quán)�，F(xiàn)在《末日審判書》保存在倫敦的公共檔案館里。從此冊可以看出，在1086年，農(nóng)村約有一半的耕地掌握在10 個(gè)承租人(貴族)手里，其中只有兩個(gè)是英國貴族，約五分之一土地歸國王本人所有。其余大多數(shù)屬于主教、修道院院長和其他修道院頭領(lǐng)
3. the Black Death----It is a modern name given to the dearly bubonic plague, an epidemic disease spread through Europe in the fourteenth century
particularly in 1348-1349. It came without warning, and without any cue. In England, it killed almost half of the total population, causing far-reaching
economic consequences. 黑死病是現(xiàn)代名稱，指的是由鼠身上的跳蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的傳染疾病。14 世紀(jì)傳播到歐洲，尤其是在1347 - 1350 年。1348 年夏天橫掃全英國，事先毫無征兆。但重要的是無藥可救。不論貧富不放過任何人，死亡 迅速而痛苦。它奪去了二分之一到一半的英國人的生命，加上隨后50 年中發(fā)生的流行病，英國的人口在14 世紀(jì)末從400 萬稅減至200 萬。
4. The Wars of Roses玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭----the name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened..是對外戰(zhàn)爭和國內(nèi)不穩(wěn)定導(dǎo)致貴族們之間沖突再起，卻令人回想起13 世紀(jì)的麻煩。1455至1485 年間政局不穩(wěn)定是兩支金雀花家族爭斗引起的，它們是蘭開斯特家族和約克家族。實(shí)際上，玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭這個(gè)詞是19 世紀(jì)的大作家瓦爾特司考特創(chuàng)造的，但它已被普遍接受，專指這兩個(gè)家族間的戰(zhàn)爭。因·為紅玫瑰代表蘭開斯特家族，而白玫瑰則是約克家族的象征盡管玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭斷斷續(xù)續(xù)進(jìn)行了三十年，但普通民眾所受影響甚微，他們照常從事各自營生。封建制度卻遭受了致命打擊。不少于80 位皇族血統(tǒng)的貴族陣亡，中世紀(jì)的貴族勢力被大大削弱，名譽(yù)掃地。至此國王的權(quán)力變得至高無上
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5. The Bill of Rights----In 1789, James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and the first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bills of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.1789年詹姆斯麥迪遜在眾議院提出了一系列的修正法案，后來這些法案被起草成十二條修正法案提交各州討論。其·中有兩條沒被各州通過，其余十條在1791 年被通過，成為憲法的前十項(xiàng)修正案--《人權(quán)法案》。從那時(shí)起美國就完成了憲法體制的建立
6. The British constitution: There is no written constitution in the United Kingdom, that is, unlike the constitutions of most other countries, the British constitution is not set out in any single document. It is made up of statute law, common law and conventions.英國議會(huì)制政府制度并不是基于成文憲法。聯(lián)合王國沒有成文憲法，也就是說與大多數(shù)他國憲法不同，英國憲法不由單一文件構(gòu)成，而是由成文法、習(xí)慣法和慣例組成。(慣例是指法律沒有明文要求必須執(zhí)行，但被視為政府工作中不可缺少的行為準(zhǔn)則)。司-法-部門裁定習(xí)慣法和解釋成文法。
7. The Great lakes----The Great Lakes are the five lakes in the northeast. They are Lake Superior which is the largest fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michigan (the only one entirely in the U.S.), Lake Huron, Lake Eire and Lake Ontario. They are all located between Canada and the United States expect Lake Michigan.美國最重要的湖泊就是五大湖。這五大湖包括：蘇必利爾湖--世界上最大的淡水湖，密歇根湖(唯一完全在美國境內(nèi)的湖)，休倫湖，伊利湖和安大略湖。除密歇根湖全部屬美國外，其他均為美國和加拿大之間的界湖。
8. The Emancipation Proclamation-（解放宣言）---After the Civil war began, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to win more support at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slaves in areas still controlled by the Confederacy. 1863年1月1日，林肯總統(tǒng)發(fā)表了《解放宣言》，正是解放美國所有的奴隸。
9. checks and balances: 制衡the United states has three separate branches of government: the of government: the legislative, executive ,and judicial .Each branch has a portion of constitutional authority and can check or block the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. the three branches are thus in balance .this is a system of checks and balances美國政府的三個(gè)分支：在政府立法，執(zhí)行，和司法。每個(gè)分支具有憲法權(quán)力的一部分，可以檢查或其他部門的行為塊。三個(gè)部門是平衡三個(gè)部門是平衡的。這是一 個(gè)制衡制度。
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10. The Great Depression: It refers to the economic depression started from the New York stock market collapse on October24, 1929.After that, thousands of banks and businesses failed. Many people lost their jobs, It was due to the
New Deal started in 1933 and the defense buildup before and during World War II that the United States finally recovered from the Great Depression大蕭條：它指的是在經(jīng)濟(jì)蕭條的october241929紐約股票市場崩潰的開始。之后，銀行和數(shù)千家企業(yè)失敗。許多人失去了他們的工作，這是由于新政開始在1933之前和第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間，美國從大蕭條中恢復(fù)的最后的國防建設(shè)
11. Industrial revolution: The Industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Britain was the first country to industrialize工業(yè)革命：工業(yè)革命是指工業(yè)的機(jī)械化，并在第十八年末和第十九世紀(jì)初英國社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)組織的變化隨之而來。英國成為第一個(gè)工業(yè)化的國家
12. The New Deal-新政---In order to deal with the Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt put forward the New Deal program. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to save American democracy and the development of American economy. "羅斯福確實(shí)馬上開始行動(dòng)。在進(jìn)入白宮后的第一個(gè)100 天里，他使國會(huì)通過了許多法案，旨在阻止經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況的進(jìn)一步惡化，幫助需要幫助的人們正如羅斯�？偨y(tǒng)所說，這些措施的目的在于"拯救美國的民-主"。這些措施確實(shí)有助于克服當(dāng)時(shí)資本
13. Counterculture: 反主流文化Counterculture was a movement of revolt against the moral values, the aesthetic standards, the personal behavior and the social relations of conventional society. 反文化是對運(yùn)動(dòng)的道德價(jià)值觀的反叛，審美標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，個(gè)人行為和社會(huì)關(guān)系的傳統(tǒng)。
14. Constitutional monarchy君主立憲制----It is a political system that has been practiced in Britain since the Glorious revolution of 1688. According to this system, the Constitution is superior to the Monarch. In law, the Monarch has many supreme powers, but in practice, the real power of monarchy has been greatly reduced and today the Queen acts solely on the advice of her ministers. She reigns but does not rule. The real power lies in the Parliament, or to be exact, in the House of Commons. 這是一個(gè)政治制度，已實(shí)行在英國1688的光榮革命以來。根據(jù)此制度，憲法是優(yōu)越的君主。在法律上，君主具有最高權(quán)力，但在實(shí)踐中，君主制的實(shí)力已大大減少，今天女王行為完全在她的部長的建議。她統(tǒng)治但不規(guī)則。真正的力量在于議會(huì)，或者更確切地說，在下議院。
15. The hundred years war:英法百年戰(zhàn)爭The Hundred Years War was a series of wars between England and France. The background of the Hundred Years War went as far back as to the reign of William the Conqueror. When William the Conqueror became king in 1066 after his victory at the Battle of Hastings, he united England with Normandy in France. William ruled both as his own.
英語國家概況名詞解釋2017-04-09 13:32 | #2樓
Anglo-Saxons : They were two groups of Germanic peoples who settled down in England from the 5 th century . They were regarded as the ancestors of the English and the founders of England .
Sinn Fein : Sinn Fein is a legal political party in Northern Ireland which supports the IRA to fight for the un-io-n of Ireland . The leaders of Sinn Fein prefer un-io-n with Ireland by a twin campaign , both military and political which they call the policy of “the Bullet and the Ballot Box “ . It believes that without the participation of Sinn Fein the political problem of Northern Ireland cannot be thoroughly solved .
Home Rule : Ireland had long been dominated by Britain , but Irish desire for an independent Irish state was never lost .”Home Rule “refers to a campaign for Irish affairs. The Home Rule Bill was finally passed in 1914 , but the process was overtaken by the First World War and was suspended for the duration of the war .
The Bill of Rights of 1689 : In 1689 , King James Ⅱ’s daughter Mary and her husband William were invited by the politicians and church authorities to take the throne , on condition that they would respect the rights of Parliament . The Bill of Rights was passed in 1689 to ensure that the King would never be able to ignore Parliament.
The functions of Parliament : The functions of Parliament are : to pass laws , to vote for taxation , to scrutinize government policy , administration and expenditure and to debate the major issues of the day .
The House of Commons : The House of Commons is the real centre of British political life because it is the place where about 650 elected representatives (Members of Parliament ) make and debate policy . These MPs are elected in the General Elections and should represent the interests of people who vote for them . The importance of general elections : General elections are very important in
western democracy . According to the author , they provide opportunities for people to influence future government policies and to replace those incompetent political leaders . Privatization in the 1980s : The British economy went through a particularly bad period in the 1970s , with high rates of inflation and devaluation of the Pound . Therefore , in the 1980s , when the Conservative party under Margaret Thatcher was in power , an extensive programme of privatization was carried out . Many state-owned businesses (such as steel , telecom , gas , aerospace ) were turned into private companies .
Privatization was successful in controlling inflation but at the same time
unemployment rate increased rapidly .
Comprehensive schools : Comprehensive schools are the most popular secondary schools in Britain today . Such schools admit children without reference to their
academic abilities and provide a general education . Pupils can study everything from academic subjects like literature to more practical subjects like cooking .
The Open University : The Open University was founded in Britain in the 1960’s for people who might not get the opportunity for higher education for
economic and social reasons . It’s open to everybody and does not demand the same formal educational qualifications as the other universities . University courses are
followed through TV , radio ,correspondence , videos and a net work of study centers . At the end of their studies at the Open University , successful students are awarded a university degree .
Eisteddfod Wales has a long poetic tradition. Poems written in the traditional Welsh language and style are governed by ancient codes and convention . This poetic tradition has been celebrated for centuries in eisteddfod , a Welsh word meaning a gathering where people recite verses and sing songs . Wales had been controlled by the English for hundreds of years and so English became the national language . Speaking Welsh was seen as a bad thing .The Welsh language began to die , but Welsh speaker fought hard to preserve it . One way they accomplished this was to celebrate their culture and their language each August with a really large Eisteddfod which would remind people throughout the UK of Wales’ special culture heritage .The Eisteddfod is now the largest popular festival of music ma-ki-ng and poetry writing in Europe .
The Great Famine The Great Famine took place from 1845—48 when successive potato crops failed and many people of Ireland starved to death , or died of the diseases which preyed on malnutrition . Many left the country for the New World. The Great Famine became a watershed in Irish history , not merely because there was mass starvation and emigration , but also because the British government appeared to be indifferent to the fate of the poorest people in its nearest colony .Naturally this period is characterized by campaigns for national independence and land reform .
The Easter Rising of 1916 It was a rebellion by Irish nationalists against British rule on 24 April 1916 (Easter Monday ) . The Irish Volunteers , led by Patrick Pearse and the Irish Citizen Army , led by James Connolly , staged the uprising . The
British crushed the rising within a week and executed its leaders . A wave of nationalist sentiment produced an electoral victory for Sinn Fein in 1918 .
Checks and balances The Irish system of government is based on the American principle of “checks and balances “ : that is , the power of the executive branch of government can be checked by the legislature (the two houses of parliament ) and by the judiciary , through courts which interpret the law . Enforcement is also part of the role of the courts of law , and is actually carried out by the police force .Both the legal system and the police force are conceived of as independent of political influence .
The Civil Service The civil service in Ireland is divided into sixteen Government Departments , each headed by a minister appointed by the Prime Minister . Ministers have final responsibility for those areas. The civil service is politically independent in the performance of its duties and has no involvement in party politics . In fact , party political activity is strictly forbidden for all middle and high-ranking civil servants .Recruitment to the civil service is by public competitive exams administered by the independent Civil Service Commission and is open to every citizen of the Republic . At present , there are some 30000 people employed in the civil service .
The Dreaming The Dreaming is the belief system from ancient times that has bound indigenous group together . The central principle of the Dreaming is that the people who live on the continent have special responsibilities to the land . The people don’t own the land , instead the land owns the people . The stories of the Dreaming provide principles of how people should live and interact with each other .They also provide knowledge of the land so that the indigenous people can survive in the life-threatening environment .
Terra Nullius Terra Nullius is from Latin. It means a land that is owned by no one . The British declared the Australian continent Terra Nullius to justify their invasion of the indigenous people’s land . It served to legitimize their taking possession of the land and devalue the indigenous people as uncivilized and not fully human .
Pastoralists The pastoralists are major landowners. They are usually the magistrates of their local area. They used the legal power as magistrates to force convict labourers to work hard . They built their wealth on the unpaid labour of the convicts . This is why they supported the transportation of convicts to Australia .
Emancipists The emancipists are ex-convicts who were fully or conditionally pardoned for conduct or service . They became successful farmers, lawyers, architects and government administrators. They contributed a lot to the development of Australian society . By the 1820s , a third of the richest men in the colony were emancipists , among them were Mary Reiby and James Ruse .
The “Washminster “ form polity The “Washminster “ form of polity is adopted by the Australian government . It is a mixture of the US Washington system of
government and the British Westminster system . This means that the political structure of the government is based on a Federation of States with a three-tier system of government . However , the chief executive is a Prime Minster , instead of a President as in the US system .
The Governor-General The Governor-General is the formal head of the executive branch of the government .He is the representative of the Queen in Australia . However , as the British monarch as no real power in Australia , the
Governor-General acts only on the advice of the Executive Council , which is made up of himself and the Cabinet .
Multiculturalism Multiculturalism was adopted in 1973s. It was comprised of 3 areas of policy : Cultural Identity , which means the right to express and share one’s cultural heritage ; Social Justice , the right to equal treatment and opportunity ; and Economic Efficiency , the need to maintain and develop the skills of all Australians regardless of their backgrounds .
The White Australia Policy The White Australia Policy was officially adopted by the Commonwealth of Australian in 1901 , in the Immigration Restriction Act . It was made to stop Chinese and other non-British migrants from entering and settling down in Australia . This was mainly achieved through a dictation test in a European language . The White Australia Policy was officially abolished in 1973.
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